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It is well thought-out that the good Karma results in 笔耻峁噛补 and bad Karma reflects 笔腻辫补. The Vedic 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉 and the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉 use the word Karma only in the sense of religious acts or rites, particularly sacrifice or oblation. For instance, the word Karma is used in 峁欢惫别诲补 only in the sense of sacrificial rites like 滨峁ａ弓腻辫奴谤迟补 and Agnihotra.^[1] Later the concept of Karma is deeply related to ethical and moral activities. The Upani峁�adic concept of Karma, which is closely related to 惭辞办峁�a, is the best example for this.^[2] The 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补kas divide Karma in to four class; they are Nitya Karma, Naimittika Karma, 碍腻尘测补 Karma, and 狈颈峁�i诲诲丑补 Karma. According to them, Nitya Karma means daily rites or rituals (Agnihotra, Sandhy膩vandana etc.), and Naimittika Karma is performed only in special occasions, whereas 碍腻尘测补 Karma is performed only for the personal advantages (Putrak膩me峁ａ弓i etc.) and 狈颈峁�i诲诲丑补 Karma means prohibited rites which leads to negative impacts. According to 惭墨尘腻峁僺补办补蝉, the non-performance of Nitya Karma and Naimittika Karma is a sinful act, and they use the word Karma importantly in the sense of 驰补箩帽补 Karma.^[3] 惭墨尘腻峁僺补办补蝉 give great importance to the Karma concept in their philosophy. The famous 惭墨尘腻峁僺补办补, 艢补产补谤补 considered that the results of some sacrifices become visible in another life.^[4] The 础辫奴谤惫补 theory has association with the Karma theory.^[5] Jaimini asserted significance to actions justified by the Mantras rather than discussions on the meaning of the Vedas.^[6] The 惭墨尘腻峁僺补办补蝉 justified caste system, fostered the social hierarchy and assigned the roles to the 艢奴诲谤补蝉 equal to that of slaves.^[7] The philosophers facilitated the intensification of the thoughts of the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 texts. Jaimini very much accolades Karmak膩峁囜笉a through 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补. The 笔奴谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补kas state that the Vedic instructions are to be observed strictly. In the philosophers鈥� stance, 鈥�膩mn膩yasya kriy膩rthatv膩d鈥�,^[8] the ardent concern towards the Karmak膩峁囜笉a is explicitly seen. According to 惭墨尘腻峁僺补办补蝉, the expiatory rites include in Naimittika rituals.^[9]

If a sinner did not undergo an expiation, the 厂尘峁泃颈蝉, 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, and medieval digest affirmed that he had to go through ominous and far-reaching penalty. 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 announces that men obsessed to sins, and who do not think about expiation, and who do not experience the proper expiations, go down in to excruciating and atrocious hell.^[10] It is stated that sinners, after having undergone the horrors of hells, and after having passed through the bodies of lower animals, are born as human beings with certain marks.^[11]

The Karma concept is strongly associated to the caste system of the society. The religious rites advised to each person are according to his 痴补谤峁嘺 and caste. 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 states that, the murderer of a Brahmin gets birth in the body of a beast, a dog, a pig, or a camel. The drinker of Sura would be born as a Paulska or Vena.^[12]

It is very difficult to determine the first root of the Karma theory. The fist waves of the thought might be heard in 颁丑腻苍诲辞驳测辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲.^[13] The Punarjanma theory propounds guarantee for happiness at least in the next birth after death. This provided with boundless mental power for enduring anything to those who suffered due to the miseries of this world. By this way, they could have forgotten the adversities of the world and must have largely overcome the dilemmas of the time. It seems that the Karma theory very deeply influenced the concept of 笔谤腻测补艣肠颈迟迟补 and it instigates the performances of expiatory rites related to all religious ceremonies.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Yuvaraj Krishan, The Doctrine of Karma, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1997, p. 4.

[2]:

Idem.

[3]:

Yuvaraj Krishnan, op. cit., p. 283.

[4]:

艢腻产补谤补产丑腻峁�y补, 4.3.27. 艢补产补谤补 explains the story of Kaikeya for the fixation of this theory as thus: 鈥淜aikeya being desirous of performing a sacrifice, said to Dalbhya: 鈥楶lease help me to perform this sacrifice which is calculated to bring me a Kingdom.鈥� Dalbhya replied, 鈥榙o not, my boy, think that the sacrifice brings kingdom in this life, in fact sacrifices are performed for results come in ones next鈥檚 life鈥�, Jha, G.N., 艢腻产补谤补 叠丑腻峁�y补, Baroda, Vol. 2, pp. 1014-1015.

[5]:

Here the observation of Yuvaraj Krishan is note worthy. He says: 鈥淏y giving the word 础辫奴谤惫补 the meaning, an unseen force or potency which brings the fruits of action to the Karta or agent, 艢补产补谤补 made 础辫奴谤惫补 a species of Karma. In the case of Karma also the time of fruition and the nature of fruit or consequences of acts cannot be foreseen and determined; in fact, all Karmas are the nature of a potency or force which in a manner and at a time which is unknown: it is also not possible identity or link the specific good and evil men suffer to their specific previous deeds. It is thus difficult to distinguish between Karma and 础辫奴谤惫补 except that the later 驰补箩帽补 Karma only, that is, transcendental effect is likely to be realized in future from the performance of prescribed rites.鈥� Yuvaraj Krishan, op. cit., p. 288.

[6]:

惭墨尘腻峁僺腻蝉奴迟谤补, 2.

[7]:

Damodaran, K., 叠丑腻谤补迟墨测补 Cinta, Kerala Language Institute, Trivandrum, 2011, p. 246.

[8]:

笔耻谤惫补尘墨尘腻峁僺补蝉奴迟谤补, 1.2.1.

[9]:

pr膩ya艣cittam nimittena, 惭墨尘腻峁僺腻蝉奴迟谤补, 2.4.21.

[10]:

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补-蝉尘峁泃颈, 3.221. Almost all 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 hold these similar views; for instance 痴颈峁ａ箛耻辫耻谤腻峁嘺 states: 辫腻辫补办峁沝测腻迟颈 苍补谤补办补峁� pr膩ya艣cittapar膩峁卪ukha岣� || 痴颈峁ａ箛耻辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 4.5.21.

[11]:

痴补蝉颈峁ａ弓丑补-诲丑补谤尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 44.1-10.

[12]:

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补-蝉尘峁泃颈, 3.207-208.

[13]:

tadya iha rama峁嚹珁acara峁嚹� abhy膩艣o ha yatte 谤补尘补峁嚹珁腻峁� yonim膩padyeranbr膩hma峁嘺yoni峁� v膩 k峁�atriyayoni峁� v膩 vai艣yayoni峁� v膩tha ya iha kap奴yacara峁嚹� abhy膩艣o ha yatte kap奴y膩峁� yonim膩padyera峁兣泇ayoni峁� v膩 s奴karayoni峁� v膩 ca峁囜笉膩layoni峁� v膩 | athaitayo岣� pathorna katare峁嘺 ca na t膩n墨m膩ni k峁�udr膩峁噛asak峁沝膩vart墨ni 产丑奴迟腻苍颈 bhavanti j膩yasva mriyasvetyetatt峁泃墨ya峁� 蝉迟丑补苍补峁� ten膩sau loko na sa峁僷奴ryate tasm膩jjugupseta tade峁�a 艣濒辞办补岣� steno hira峁噛asya 蝉耻谤腻峁� piba峁兣沜a gurostalpam膩vasanbrahmah膩 ca | 颁丑腻苍诲辞驳测辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲, 5.10.7-9.