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The term 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 is a compound word made of two parts: 腻测耻蝉 means life or longevity, and veda denotes knowledge or science. Thus 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 refers to the knowledge/science for life or longevity, which is a rational and naturalistic system of medical knowledge and practice (Filliozat 1966-1968, 477). Its purpose is to prolong life鈥搃t not only cures the sickness of people, but also prevents them from getting sick (Basham 1976, 21-22). It provides physicians with practical information for treating patients, as well as for advising people on proper ways to maintain health and to live long (as mentioned at the beginning of Section 2. 3). As Zysk (1996, 8) has stated: in many cultures of the world, having a long life is a criterion for being considered healthy. More importantly, longevity allows people more opportunity to achieve their goals or fulfil duties. In Indian culture, four goals (辫耻谤耻峁Ｄ乺迟丑补) are known, as mentioned in the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 15): accomplishment of virtues (dharma), attainment of wealth (artha), fulfilment of desire (办腻尘补), and liberation from the world (尘辞办峁�a). The achievement of these goals relies on having good health and a long life鈥搕hat is, the science of longevity.

There are eight branches (补峁ａ弓腻峁単补) in 膧yurvedic science, namely (Benner 2005, 3853; Mitra 1985, 22):

1. 办腻测补肠颈办颈迟蝉腻 (internal medicine),
2. 艣补濒测补迟补苍迟谤补 or 艣补濒测补-辫补丑补谤迟峁沰补 (general surgery),
3. 艣腻濒腻办测补迟补苍迟谤补 or 奴谤诲丑惫腻峁単补肠颈办颈迟蝉腻 (dealing with diseases above the clavicle),
4. 产丑奴迟补惫颈诲测腻 or grahatantra (relating to possession by supernatural beings),
5. 办补耻尘腻谤补产丑峁泃测补办补 or 产腻濒补肠颈办颈迟蝉腻 (paediatrics),
6. agadatantra or 惫颈峁�a驳补谤补惫补颈谤辞诲丑颈办补辫谤补艣补尘补苍补 or 诲补峁冡梗峁璻腻 (toxicology),
7. 谤补蝉腻测补苍补 or 箩补谤腻肠颈办颈迟蝉腻 (geriatrics and life prolongation), and
8. 惫腻箩墨办补谤补峁嘺 or 惫峁涐梗补 (pertaining to aphrodisiacs).^[1]

Anatomical and physiological principles are important in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 for understanding physical health and disease (Weiss 2005, 715). The anatomical knowledge in the classical 膧yurvedic texts is thought to come principally from Vedic sources, which contain long lists of body parts from dissecting animals during religious sacrificial rituals (Chopra 2003, 75). Anatomical data were also obtained from examination of bodies of the injured or killed. Dissection of human corpses, though a strong taboo in ancient India, was not unknown in early times (Basham 1976, 27-29).^[2]

The fundamental physiological principles of 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 include the theories of 辫补帽肠补尘补丑腻产丑奴迟补蝉, 诲辞峁�a蝉, 诲丑腻迟耻蝉, and malas. The doctrine of 辫补帽肠补尘补丑腻产丑奴迟补蝉 forms the very basis of 膧yurvedic science (Chopra 2003, 75). 顿辞峁�a蝉, 诲丑腻迟耻蝉, and malas are recognised in the classical 膧yurvedic treatises as the 鈥渞oot鈥� of the body (厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 15. 3; A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 11. 1). These concepts will be concisely introduced as follows.

笔补帽肠补尘补丑腻产丑奴迟补蝉 (or simply 辫补帽肠补产丑奴迟补蝉), the five great elements, are earth (辫峁泃丑惫墨), water (ap), fire (tejas), wind or air (惫腻测耻), and space (腻办腻艣补). These five are the elemental substances of all physical matter in the universe, including the human body. By adopting this ideology of the 厂腻峁僰丑测补 school, the 膧yurvedic system holds that humans as microcosms of the universe can interact with nature (Chopra 2003, 75; Filliozat 1964, 26-27). Each of these five elements, according to the 膧yurvedic (and other Indian philosophical) literature,^[3] has its special qualities. Moreover, each predominates in certain bodily components and manifests certain functions.

Mitra (1985, 55) has extracted such information from a passage in one of the 膧yuvedic texts (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 艢腻谤墨谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 7.16) and given the translation as follows:

鈥淲hatever is predominently [sic] gross (蝉迟丑奴濒补), firm or static (sthira), solid (尘奴谤迟颈尘补迟), heavy (guru), rough (khara), and hard (办补峁环颈苍补) part of the body, viz., nails, bones, teeth, flesh, skin, faeces, hair of the head, face and body, tendons as well as odour and the sense of smell, belongs to 笔峁泃丑颈惫墨 产丑奴迟补 [sic]. Whatever is predominently [sic] liquid (drava), diffusive (sara), sluggish (manda), viscous (snigdha), soft (尘峁沝耻) and pasty (picchila), viz., body nutrient fluid (rasa), blood, fat, kapha [sic] or phlegm, pitta [sic] or bile, urine, sweat, etc., belongs to Ap 诲丑腻迟耻. Whatever in the body is of the nature of Pitta, heat and radiating lustre (产丑腻) as well as colour and complexion is referable to tejas 诲丑腻迟耻. Whatever in the body is of the nature of inhalation and exhalation, opening and closing the eyes, contraction and extension, movement, impelling and holding, etc., as well as touch and the sense of touch are referable to 惫腻测耻 [sic]. Whatever in the body is of the nature of porosity (vivikta), utterance and the channels that are gross and minute, as well as sound and the sense of hearing, are referable to 腻办腻艣补 诲丑腻迟耻.鈥�^[4]

The three 诲辞峁�a蝉 (迟谤颈诲辞峁�a) are wind (惫腻迟补 or 惫腻测耻), bile (pitta), and phlegm (kapha, 艣濒别峁�m补苍; 笔腻濒颈: semha),^[5] which are thought, like all matters in the world, to evolve from the 辫补帽肠补产丑奴迟补蝉.^[6] They are often rendered as 鈥渉umours鈥� because of the similarity of this theory to the Greek humoral theory of Hippocrates and Galen. The term 诲辞峁�a can literally mean 鈥渧itiator鈥�, from the root 诲耻峁� (to spoil or to corrupt). It is because when the 诲辞峁�a蝉 are in balance or in proper proportion they lead to a good state of health; otherwise they can cause various diseases and even death. Although these humours carry a sense of negative implication, they are essential to all bodily functions.^[7] They are thought to be semi-fluids circulating in the body via special channels, but each of them predominates in certain part of the body: 惫腻迟补 in the lower abdomen, pitta in the upper abdomen, and kapha in the chest and head. They have their own qualities: 惫腻迟补 is dry, cold, light, mobile, non-slimy, and coarse; pitta is greasy, hot, sour, pungent, sharp, and fluid; kapha is heavy, cold, viscous, soft, sweet, and slimy (as described in the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 59-61, as well as in the A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 11-12).^[8] The three 诲辞峁�a蝉 have their individual functions. 痴腻迟补, as wind, mainly exerts its function characterised by 鈥渕ovement鈥�, such as body/limb movement, mental activation, speech utterance, respiration, intestinal peristalsis, bowel evacuation, etc. Pitta is responsible for functions such as digestion, metabolism, body heat, as well as making the body soft and flexible. It also induces psychological activities such as understanding, intelligence and courage. Kapha makes the body firm, smooth and stable, lubricates the joints, and refreshes the sense organs (Benner 2005, 3854-3855; Chopra 2003, 77-78).^[9] The three 诲辞峁�a蝉 undergo fluctuation and each of them dominates at a different period during the daytime and night-time. Variations of the three also occur at different seasons and at different stages of life. Conditions鈥搒uch as habitat, food, lifestyle, and so on鈥揷an have influences on the functions of the 诲辞峁�a蝉 (Chopra 2003, 78; Thakar 1992, 383). The three 诲辞峁�a蝉 are already present at the start of life for each person, until the end of life. Moreover, every person has his/her unique constitution of the 诲辞峁�a蝉 at birth, forming his/her 辫谤补办峁泃颈. This constitution determines the individual physical and psychological characteristics; it also influences pathogenesis of disease and hence the treatment (Chopra 2003, 77-78; Thakar 1992, 382-385). In brief, the three 诲辞峁�a蝉 together regulate all phases and activities of growth, maintenance and decay. Their balance is responsible for health, and their imbalance for illness and death.^[10]

The term 诲丑腻迟耻, though literally means 鈥渃onstituent part鈥� or 鈥渆lement鈥�, represents certain body substance or tissue in 膧yurvedic science. There are seven 诲丑腻迟耻蝉: chyle (rasa), blood (rakta), muscle (尘腻峁僺补), fat (medas), bone (asthi), marrow (尘补箩箩腻), and semen (艣耻办谤补). Each of these seven, according to the 膧yurvedic physiology, is derived one by one from each other, starting from the ingested food. Food undergoes the process of digestion, which assumes a very significant role in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 and is regulated by 诲辞峁�a蝉. Food is digested鈥搗iewed as being 鈥渃ooked鈥� by 鈥渄igestive fire鈥� (箩腻峁环补谤腻驳苍颈)鈥揳nd this results in chyle. Then chyle is transformed by bile into blood, blood into flesh, flesh into fat, fat into bone, bone into marrow, and marrow into semen (A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 13; Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 28. 4, 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 15. 16; Chopra 2003, 76-77). Through this process of digestion and metabolism, the seven 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 are sustained and restored (Thakar 1992, 384).^[11] These 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 have their specific functions: chyle supplies nu^[12] trients, blood helps maintain life activities, meat covers the bones, fat provides lubrication, bones support the body, marrow fills the bone, and semen is responsible for reproduction (A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 11. 4).^[13]

Mala, another 鈥渞oot鈥� of body, refers to any bodily excretion; among which urine, faeces, and sweat are the major ones. Other examples of wastes are earwax, tears, nasal discharge, and so on (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 15. 18-20). Being the waste products of the process of metabolism, they are passed out of the body. According to the A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 11. 5), the malas have their functions: the faeces sustain the strength of the body, the urine eliminates the moisture, and sweat retains the moisture.

According to the teachings of the 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, health is achieved by the balance of the 诲辞峁�a蝉, the 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 and the malas; sickness occurs when one or more of them are out of balance (Thakar 1992, 377). 顿辞峁�a蝉 play an important role because their change can vitiate the balance of 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 and malas, and the 诲辞峁�a蝉 can cause imbalance of the 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 and/or the malas resulting in disease (Benner 2005, 3855; Zysk 1991, 29). Most of the diseases (and even death) are explained by the imbalance of one or more of the three 诲辞峁�a蝉. When there is 鈥渃ausative factor鈥� (苍颈诲腻苍补) acting on the 诲辞峁�a蝉, the balance of the 诲辞峁�a蝉 can be upset with the increase or decrease of one or more of the 诲辞峁�a蝉, and this leads to various symptoms and diseases (Weiss 2005, 714; Zysk 1996, 1). Causative factors can be diet, time, seasonal change, habitat, lifestyle, conduct, physical and/or emotional stress, suppression of natural urges, effect of previous actions (karma),^[14] and so on (厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 21. 19-26; Filliozat 1964, 29; Weiss 2005, 714). If a 诲辞峁�a is increased, it first accumulates at its dominant area and causes pathology there; if further increased it overspreads from its area, causing morbid features (symptoms and signs) at other parts of the body.^[15] Thus, as Thakar (1992, 386) clearly summarises, disease is conditioned by 苍颈诲腻苍补 (external aetiological factor), 诲辞峁�a (internal physiological factor) and 诲奴峁�y补 (the body parts to be affected). In addition, sickness can also be due to 腻尘补, which is considered as a harmful product of improperly digested food. It can cause blockage of the channels through which 诲辞峁�a蝉 and 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 flow, and subsequently disturbs their normal circulation and leads to disease (Benner 2005, 3855).^[16] Other external factors such as injuries, poisons, and supernatural beings are also recognised as disease-causing in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补.^[17]

In order to make a diagnosis of the patient鈥檚 illness, a six-fold examination (峁�a岣峷颈诲丑补 谤辞驳颈辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ�) of the patient will be carried out: the physician uses the five senses to observe the symptoms and signs, together with the interrogation (of the patient鈥檚 complaints) to make diagnosis (厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 10. 4-5). Then the diagnosis is made by the 膧yurvedic physician (vaidya) in terms of five criteria (苍颈诲腻苍补 辫补帽肠补办补): aetiology (苍颈诲腻苍补), prodromal features (辫奴谤惫补谤奴辫补), clinical features (谤奴辫补), therapeutic trial (耻辫补艣补测补), and pathogenesis (蝉补尘辫谤腻辫迟颈) (A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 狈颈诲腻苍补蝉迟丑腻苍补 (狈颈诲腻苍补蝉迟丑腻苍补) 1. 2-8).^[18] Apart from these, special diagnostic skills have been added and utilised in the long history of 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, for instance: examination of urine (尘奴迟谤补辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ�) came into practice from about the eleventh century Common Era; examination of the pulse (苍腻岣嵞玴补谤墨办峁Ｄ�)^[19] appeared in the 艢膩r峁単adhara 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (circa the fourteenth century); examination of the eight bases (补峁ａ弓补蝉迟丑腻苍补辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ�)鈥搘hich examines the patient鈥檚 pulse, urine, faeces, tongue, eyes, general appearance, voice, and skin鈥揵egan to be used from the sixteenth century. Furthermore, prognostic methods were also developed in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补. For example, a technique in which an oil-drop was placed on the surface of the patient鈥檚 urine, to determine his/her remaining lifespan, has been employed from about the sixteenth century (Wujastyk 1993, 767).

膧测耻谤惫别诲补 includes both therapeutic and preventive aspects. In respect to therapy, it employs many different measures such as medicinal substances, diet, emesis, enemas, purgation, massage, bloodletting, douches, sweating, surgery, and so on (Wujastyk 2005, 1411). The chief goal of various therapies in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 is to restore the balance鈥揺specially that of the 诲辞峁�a蝉. After diagnosing which humour or humours are increased or decreased, different drugs or treatments are prescribed to counter the pathogenic factor(s) and to correct the imbalance (Weiss 2005, 714).^[20]

The materia medica recorded in the ancient 膧yurvedic treatises is vast, containing various vegetal, animal and mineral substances with specific healing properties (Wujastyk 1993, 761). The body of medicinal substances was enlarging with new drugs being introduced, such as opium and metallic compounds (from the development of alchemy in the second millennium of the Common Era, especially for rejuvenation and extraordinary powers) (Chopra 2003, 80-81; Mazars 2006, 11-12).

Apart from using drugs, other modes of treatment were used. Five specific therapies (辫补帽肠补办补rma) have been described in the early medical texts. For instance, in the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 these are emesis, purgation, oily enema, watery enema, and nasal catharsis (while the 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 replaces one enema with bloodletting). Moreover, preparatory measures鈥搒uch as consuming oil or applying oil externally (i.e. oiling), and causing sudation by various methods (i.e. sweating) in order to open the channels, mobilise the problematic humour/waste, and eliminate it鈥揳re often carried out before these treatments.^[21]

Surgery was emphasised in the 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, but not in the other 膧yurvedic texts. Various types of surgical techniques have been described in detail in this treatise, such as cataract couching, bone-setting, suturing, and so on. However, the practice of surgery seemed to have lost its importance very soon in the history of 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, for there is almost no evidence of this practice in the historical sources of India in the medieval times (Wujastyk 1993, 763-765; 2005, 1411).

Apart from the above commonly employed remedies of 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, there are other therapeutic measures. Dietetics has an important role in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补. It is based on the doctrine that there is an association between taste (rasa) in foods and five mah膩产丑奴迟补s, and through such a principle that the six tastes鈥搒weet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter, and astringent鈥揳ssert different effects on the 诲辞峁�a蝉 (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 6466). Preparation and consumption of various foods and drinks are taught in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补. In addition, a meat diet and alcohol sometimes are prescribed as medicines when necessary. ^[22] Another type of treatment is the magico-religious measures of the Vedic medicine. Some forms of Vedic medicine survive in the 膧yurvedic medicine, though the latter is empirico-rational and emphasises on pharmaceutical/surgical cures. Magico-religious remedies such as ritual offering and spell chanting were used in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 for certain diseases, especially in the possessed conditions and paediatric diseases (Zysk 1991, 19-20).

Maintenance of health鈥揻or the purpose of long life鈥搃s another important aspect of 膧测耻谤惫别诲补. There are many practical advices鈥搘hat to do and what not to do鈥揻or this purpose according to 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 (e.g. A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 2-4), such as personal hygiene (tooth-brushing, bathing, cutting hairs and nails, etc.); non-suppression of natural urges (e.g. passing urine, faeces, flatus); suitability of and moderation in foods and drinks; physical exercises to control weight; time and place for sleep; ethical conduct (good deeds of body, speech and mind, e.g. no harming of other sentient beings, no stealing or robbing, no sexual misconduct, compassion, thinking of the benefits of others, etc.); appropriate occupations; suitable etiquettes and activities;good clothing and footwear; wearing talismans or amulets; usage of eye collyria, nasal drops, mouth gargles, etc.; body massage; regimens during different seasons; suitable living environment; and so on.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

These eight branches are listed in the classical 膧yurvedic texts, though different terms have been used for the branches (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 30. 28; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 6; A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 5).

[2]:

In the 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (艢腻谤墨谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 (艢腻谤墨谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补) 5. 49), there is a passage describing the way to handle a corpse and to observe the body parts while it is decomposing.

[3]:

Karunadasa (2002, 392) points out that Buddhism (as well as Jainism) only recognises four great elements鈥揺arth, water, fire, wind鈥揵ut not space (as the fifth mah膩产丑奴迟补), even though space is sometimes listed with the four elements in the 笔腻濒颈 狈颈办腻测补. Likewise, consciousness (惫颈帽帽腻峁嘺) is sometimes enumerated with the five items in 笔腻濒颈 discourses but it is not regarded as the sixth mah膩产丑奴迟补. However, the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (艢腻谤墨谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 16) groups the five great elements with consciousness (肠别迟补苍腻) and term them as six 诲丑腻迟耻蝉.

[4]:

There are many similar descriptions of the qualities and functions of these great elements found in the 膧yurvedic treatises, and it is impossible to quote them all here. Mitra has composed a good chapter on the 尘补丑腻产丑奴峁璦蝉, providing many references from 膧yurvedic texts as well as Buddhist scriptures. See his book (1985, 40-56).

[5]:

痴腻迟补, pitta and kapha are sometimes glossed as wind, fire, and water respectively, because of the properties of these elements in the 诲辞峁�a蝉 (Benner 2005, 3854).

[6]:

Blood is sometimes listed as the fourth 诲辞峁�a in some 膧yurvedic texts. See, for example, 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 21. 28.

[7]:

This general depiction of the three 诲辞峁�a蝉 is based on information gathered from Basham 2004, 501; Benner 2005, 3854; Chopra 2003, 77; Thakar 1992, 382; and Wujastyk 2005, 1411.

[8]:

In the description of the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, it also states that medicines having opposite qualities can relieve the qualities of these humours.

[9]:

Each 诲辞峁�a is further divided into five kinds. Details of these kinds can be found in A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 12. 4-18. See also Jolly 2012, 49-50.

[10]:

These three 诲辞峁�a蝉 are commonly referred to in the 膧yurvedic texts as pathogenic factors of physical body. Rajas (emotion) and tamas (darkness) are mentioned in the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 1. 57) as the pathogenic factors of the mind causing vitiation of the mind. But these two are much less emphasised while discussing aetiology in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补.

[11]:

The metabolic process, if functioning well, results in the production of ojas (rendered as energy or vitality, which is the essence of the seven 诲丑腻迟耻蝉) which serves as the support of life and gives strength, courage and immunity to the body; without it, life vanishes (Chopra 2003, 76; Jolly 2012,

[12]:

; Thakar 1992, 384). For more information on ojas (also known as bala in the 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻), see Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 30. 8-14; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 15. 19-28; A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 11. 39-41.

[13]:

In the metabolic process, upa诲丑腻迟耻 (secondary 诲丑腻迟耻) and mala (excretion) are also formed. Upa诲丑腻迟耻蝉 refer to bodily tissues or fluids such as skin, hair, tendons, breast milk, menses etc., which are regarded as side-products of the 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 (Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 颁颈办颈迟蝉腻蝉迟丑腻苍补 15. 17). Malas will be described in the following paragraph.

[14]:

According to Zysk (1991, 30-31), the classical 膧yurvedic texts have little regard for karma as a cause of illness, though it is listed as a theoretical cause. And it seems to have more importance in the area of embryology.

[15]:

Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 17. 114) and A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 12. 22-24) state two pathological stages for the 诲辞峁�a蝉: accumulation (caya) and aggravation (prakopa or kopa); 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 21. 18-37) describes six abnormal stages: accumulation (蝉补峁僣补测补), aggravation (prakopa), spread (prasara), localisation (蝉迟丑腻苍补蝉补峁兣况补测补), manifestation (vyakti), and specification (bheda).

[16]:

According to 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 (e.g. A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 鲍迟迟补谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 (鲍迟迟补谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补) 6. 4-6), mind is transported via channels; blockage of the channels can also lead to mental illness such as insanity. Moreover, mental stress can aggravate the 诲辞峁�a蝉 (the physical body), while dysfunction of 诲辞峁�a蝉 (and channels) can lead to insanity and epilepsy (mental and neurological disorders), as Thakar (1992, 385) has commented.

[17]:

Supernatural causes (e.g. deities or demons) are usually accounted for psychiatric and paediatric problems.

[18]:

There are different diagnostic principles in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补, such as the ten-fold examination mentioned in the Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 (痴颈尘腻苍补蝉迟丑腻苍补 (痴颈尘腻苍补蝉迟丑腻苍补) 8. 94), which includes: physical constitution (辫谤补办峁泃颈), morbid manifestations (惫颈办峁泃颈), excellence of the 诲丑腻迟耻蝉 (蝉腻谤补), compactness of the body (蝉补峁僪补苍补苍补), measurement of bodily parts (辫谤补尘腻峁嘺), suitability of food (蝉腻迟尘测补), mental strength (sattva), capacity for intake of food (腻丑腻谤补艣补办迟颈), physical capacity for exercise (vy膩y腻尘补艣akti) and age (vayas).

[19]:

According to Chopra (2003, 79), the appearance of the examination of the pulse in 膧测耻谤惫别诲补 was probably influenced by Chinese medicine or Arabic medicine. He also mentions that scholars have suggested the possible influence by Tantric yoga.

[20]:

However, it is known that in 膧yurvedic practice this principle is not necessarily followed. Often treatment is given based on empirical data rather than on theory (Benner 2005, 3855; Chopra 2003, 80).

[21]:

This description on the 辫补帽肠补办补rma has the information collected from Chopra 2003, 80; Wujastyk 2003b, xx; 2005, 1411.

[22]:

There is much material on dietetics in the classical 膧yurvedic texts, such as Caraka 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 23, 25-28; 厂耻艣谤耻迟补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 45-46; and A峁ａ弓膩峁単a 贬峁沝补测补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 厂奴迟谤补蝉迟丑腻苍补 5-10.