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It has rightly been said that the culture and civilization of a period can be gauged from the treatment accorded to women. In the Vedic period much latitude was given to the fair sex. There were a number of cultured ladies who were themselves Rsis and composed hymns and performed sacrifices like men. No restrictions were placed on their legitimate spheres of action, and women freely spoke to people gathered at their houses, went to feasts, took part in sacrifices, gaily decorated and decked with ornaments.' There was no religious obligation that every girl must be married, and they were allowed to follow Brahmacarya like men. They inherited and possessed property. They distinguished themselves. in learning and sciences of that period and took part in learned disquisitions. In the epic period also we find that women were held in high respect and no special restrictions or disabilities were placed in the way of women only on account of their sex. They wielded a considerable influence in social and political matters. The Buddhists, however, looked to women with suspicion, and disparaging remarks about them are met everywhere in the Jataka stories. Women are said to be depravity incarnate. They are unknowable and uncers, as the path of the fish in water. They are faithless, ungrateful, treacherous and untrustworthy. It is said that a woman cannot be guarded; there is no keeping her safe. 1 Cf. Majumdar, Outline, p. 47.

381 They are difficult to control. The Kunala Jataka is intended to illustrate the vices and follies of womankind, their immoderate passion, unchastity and lust. Buddha was reluctant to admit women in his Order, but he ultimately gave his consent to their admission. All the above remarks about women do not reflect the correct. state of the society, nor are they to be taken at their face value. They are purposely coloured and are intended as warnings to lustful monks to beware of women and save themselves from falling into the snares of women. The Jataka and other Buddhist works show the lax morality in their sacred Order; but judging from the contemporary writings of other faiths, it does not appear that women. had suddenly clothed themselves in all vices specially in the Buddhist period. There were, of course, black sheep in every fold as is the case everywhere. The Arthasastra does not throw much light on the position of women in those days. Their right over property is recognized and some consideration is shown to them under certain circumstances. They are found to be helpful in the secret service. No particular restrictions are placed on women taking any legitimate course of action. The Smrti writers, Manu, for instance, in spite of the noble sentiments of ancient writers about the high position of women echoed in their works, enunciate at times, the fundamental doctrine of women's perpetual subjugation and dependence on the males and differentiate between the status of husband and wife. The commentators on the Smrtis and later Nibandhakaras ignore the noble words and wax eloquent on the restrictions. to be placed on women and their incompetence and incapacities. The period under our review is, however, characterized by a spirit of toleration towards women. The birth of a female child was an honour and an occasion for great joy and not of sorrow as expressed in Later writings. No specific particulars about the education 1 Ja, I, 142; III. 327; IV. 425; Cf. also. I. 61, 65, 145; II. 193, 198, 263; III. 360; Kunala, Jataka (V. 536). 2 Cf. Arthasastra, III. 3, 4, pp. 154-162, Manu, III. 55-60; contra Manu, IX. 2, 3.4 Av, I. 9. bahu vandaniyam | Cf. Avi, I. 2. kanyapiturhi satatam bahu cintaniyam | Contra. darika hrdayadarika pituh ; jateti kanya mahati hi sanka ; etc.

382 of women are to be found in these plays. We know that in the Vedic age as also in the period of the epics, the Arthasastra and the Jatakas, literacy prevailed among women. As Brahmacarya was the period of education of the males, females also received instruction during this period, from women teachers." 2. Maidens enjoyed perfect freedom at their parent's house. They passed their time in the company of their friends in playing the game of ball and in similar jolly pastimes. They also grew different kinds of shrubs in their gardens, and had parrots, peacocks, etc., as their playmates. In addition to the three R's, they were apparently taught song and music. Female teachers were apparently engaged for this purpose. From the fact that girls of high families received training in dancing, it appears that it was not thought an improper art among high circles. In later times song, music and dance, especially the last one, came to be associated only with the prostitutes. Maidens moved freely in the public and used no covering over their heads which elderly women generally wore. The sight of a maiden was thought to be free from the taint that was attached to the sight of a woman." The position of married women and the high respect they were held in by their husbands and other relatives has already been considered. Women lived in the inner apartments (antahpura) of the house and no stranger got entry inside. Even women of questionable character were not allowed.' Married women undertook a number of fasts, religious observances (vratas) and penances (niyamas) and gave daksinas to the Brahmanas for the welfare of their husbands." Practically no information is supplied about the toilet of women in those days. It appears that married 1 Venkatesvara, Indian Culture through the Ages , I, Chap. III; Law, OC, IV, pp. 383-399; Mookerji, Visvabharati Qtly,. I, pp. 227-241; Chakladar, Social Life, pp. 180-181 Arthasastra, II 1. 3. 2 Cf. Padmavati I and Vasavadatta in the Svapna and Pratijna; Kurangi in the Avi. 3 Cf. Uttara Vaitalika in Pratijna (p. 27) and Brhannala in Panc. 4 All India Drama Conference, p. 168. Baudhayana, however, condemns music etc.-Indian Cult., I. p. 200. 5 Pratigha, p. 50 bhavanidakalcuae siviae ...| 6 Pratijiva, p. 50-- kannabhadamsanam niddosa ... | 7 Car, p. 36-abhaini bhai anbhantarappavesassa | ; Also p. 70 bahyajanadharitamalankaram grhajano na draksyati | (. sasthi upavasa ) Avi, p. 2 ( niyamakarya ) : Mo. p. 11. Car, p. 5 (p. 8 P. 84

383 women braided their hair in three plaits when living with their husbands and only one plait when their husbands were away. They put on powder decoration in the parting of their hair and painted their forehead and cheeks, and put collyrium in their eyes. When her husband went abroad, the wife remained, as it were, in mourning. No toilet was used. No collyrium was put in the eyes nor were the hair combed. 2 We do not get exact particulars as to how widows were treated. It seems probable that they were excluded on auspicious occasions." They dressed themselves differently from women whose husbands were living." Possibly, widows did not use ornaments and toilet, and it was taken to be inauspicious for a maiden not to decorate herself.* There was a class of women in those times known as gosthijanas, who were gay, cultured. talented and possessed great conversational powers. They were quite distinct from prostitutes. Possibly, such gosthijanas were employed in royal palaces or at the houses of the rich in order to amuse the ladies. 5 The fact of the queen Pauravi of Duryodhana expressing a desire to follow her lord to the funeral pyre is only incidentally mentioned.(R) It cannot sufficiently warrant the conclusion as to the prevalence of the custom of sati (or the burning of the widow on the pyre of her husband) in those days or the contrary. There is no reference to the burning of widows in the Rgveda. The word 'agre' in Rgveda X.18.7 was changed to 'agne' to justify the custom of sati which came into vogue at a later time." In the Mahabharata, we find that queen Madri burnt herself on her husband's funeral pyre. Greek historians also testify to the currency of the system among the Kathians, who have been identified with the people of 1 Swapna, v. 10 - netraviprositanjanam and dirghalakam ; Abh. II. 8-ekavenim | 2 Svapna, p. 57. 3 Dgh, p. 52 - ajjaaliam ca de vesaggahanam aham vi uvadharaislami | 4 Avi, p. 54-ma amangalam bhanahi | sadadalankida bhattidaribha hodu | 5 Ven.ketesvara, Ind, Cult., I, p, 294; Avi, IV. 21; also pp. 54, 56, 86, 87. Prof. Chakladar takes Gosthi to refer to "Social gatherings -Social Life, pp. 164-167. We have referred to that sense of gosthi in a later chapter. 6 Tru, p. 109. eka kidampavesaniccaa | 7 Cf, Rgveda, X. 18. 7-aneg 974: I 3/4 (or : ) | May these ladies (janayah) be the first (agre) to ascend (arohantu) the house (yonim):-or may these ladies enter funeral pyre (agneb yonim).

384 Madra. The reference in the Mahabharata to the voluntary burning of the widows of Krsna has been taken by Mr. Vaidya to be a later addition. The fact that the Mahabharata does not mention the burning of the widows of Duryodhana and of others signifies that the custom did not prevail at the time of the Bharata war. Mr. Dutta's opinion that the custom came into vogue in India after the Scythian invasion in the 2 nd century B. C. stands disproved on the testimony of Greek writers coming before that invasion. Owing to the solitary reference in our plays, no conclusion can be drawn one way or the other regarding the observance of the custom. 1 2 We do not get much information as to the dress and ornaments of women. The dress of women appears to have been two oblong pieces of cloth, one an upper garment (uttariya) and the other, a lower garment. The upper garment practically covered the whole body of women, and was usually taken over the head so as to be used as a veil when necessary. This system of dress prevailed in the epic period and was perhaps current when these plays were written. The garments used by widows were white, while other women wore coloured garments. The reference to white-robed ladies in the Mahabharata is perhaps the earliest passage, according to Prof. Visvanatha, referring to the wearing of white garments by the widows, a custom continued to this day." Women, as ever, were very fond of ornaments and they used to wear a number of ornaments in ancient times made of gold, jewels, diamonds and pearls which were abundant in those times. The middle class people used silver and gold. Women wore anklets (nupura) round their feet and a girdle (rasana) round the waist. Then there were ear ornaments (kundalas) and bracelets (keyuras) for the arms. Some women used the sprout of the Tali tree to grace the ear similar to the use of Sirisa. Various kinds of necklaces made of different varieties of pearls, jewels, corals, etc. reaching the navel used to adorn their necks. No mention is found of the nose ring which unwidowed married women wear at present. There is a difference of opinion about the prevalence 2 Racial Synthesis. p. 93. 3 Cf. Car, 1 Vaidya, Epic India, pp. 91-92. p. 82. - ( karnau sprstra ) haddhi | talipattam khu eda | |

385 of the purdah system in ancient India before the system was introduced by the Mohamedans. Whatever scholars may say with regard to the subsequent periods, they are at one in stating that there was no purdah System in the Vedic age down to the period of the epics. Both in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata we come across passages that suggest at first sight that the purdah system was current in the epic period. The Ramayana states: VI. 114. 28 vyasanesu na krcchresu na yuddhesu svayamvare | na rtau no vivahe va darsanam dusyate striyah || The stanza is taken to mean that the purdah system which existed in those days was done away with on the six specified occasions. The stanza, however, states the exceptions to the general rule that no one was to look at women(); thus, according to the stanza, no sin was to be attached if one had a look at women on the six specified occasions. Had the custom of veiling women been generally approved and thought desirable, there would be no propriety in specifying the exceptions. And again we find descriptions of women going about unveiled. As regards the Mahabharata, Mr. Vaidya has dealt in detail. with the problem of the existence of the system in that age and has rightly come to the conclusion that the system was not in existence in the Mahabharata period. The system, according to him, was borrowed by the Indians from the Persians in the 5 th or the 4 th century B. C., and prevailed in Northern India among the Ksatriyas since that time.' From the description of the galleries (simhapanjara) to the houses from where women had a glance at the processions and the fact that they went to religious discourses etc., Prof. C. V. Joshi concludes that the system was not found favour with in the Buddhist age.2 The general impression created by the Arthasastra is that the purdah system as such was unknown in those days. Dr. Mookerji, however, refers to the Zenana system or the seclusion of women in the Arthasastra; the references allude only to women who do not stir out of the 1 Upasamhara, pp. 228-229. 2 Aravinda, 1921, pp. 349-350. The learned Professor has written in reply to a letter that now he has changed his view as he finds it to be based on insufficient data.

386 house. So at the most the custom was partially in existence in the case of only a few women in the Mauryan age. 2 In our plays there are some references which suggest that there was a system during those days, analogous to the present purdah system the veiling cloth covering the whole face including the head. But there is nothing to indicate that the other evils of the purdah system, such as the seclusion of women, their permanent confinement to the inner apartments, etc., which were the invariable concomitants of the purdah system were present. It appears that women simply covered their faces to avoid the sinful glances of the commoners. Maidens had no veils. They moved freely. The covering of the head was not used by widows. The Ramayana quotation explained above is similar to the one found in our plays; but as we find another reference to veils (avagunthanas) we are inclined to hold that at the time of our poet women used to cover their faces. Not only ladies of royalty and the gentry, but courtesans also were veiled when they passed in carriages. It may be noted that the purdah system all its implications as introduced by the Mahomedans was quite unknown to the Indians before the entry of the Mahomedans. with On the whole, it is our considered opinion that women received a fair and honourable treatment in those days. p. xliii; 1 Introductory Essay to "Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity" Arthasastra, pp. 114, 147 - aniskasinyah ; bhaniskasininam | 2 Prat, p. 36- apaniyatamavagunthanam 1; Swapna, p. 140- samksipyatam yavanika | ; Uru, st. 38- prakasi- krtamurdhajani | 3 Prat, I. 29 - nirdosadrsya hi bhavanti naryo yajne vivahe vyasane vane ca | Prat, p. 36-apaniyatamavagunthanam | 4 Car p. 89 -gahidavaunthana |