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The Atharvaveda-Parisistas reveal certain beliefs and practices which were current in those days. People believed in supernatural beings like demons, goblins, as well as gandharvas 17 and in the occult sciences like magic and astrology. Amulets (pratisara i.e. back-repeller) were supposed to have magic significance and they were tied on persons to remove the fear of the non-human and malevolent beings. 18 People believed in the sanctity of certain places (tirthas). It is stated (41.4. 7) that, if a Brahmana does not perform the twilight-worship (samdhya), he will not be born as a Brahmana for a number of lives, unless he dies at a holy place. Rivers were highly honoured. The water of a hundred rivers was necessary for the abhiseka of a king. The water from the four oceans also was braught for the same purpose (5.1.3). For sprinkling the cows which were to be given away, the water of five rivers was essential (16.1.5). The rivers Ganga and Sarasvati were considered to be especially sacred and so too Gaya and the Naimisa forest (42.2.4). The confluence of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna was considered to be very holy (40.4.4 Cf.68.3.1) The Vedas commanded great sanctity and authority, and the recitation of the Vedic mantras was believed to destroy sin (2.6.4) and to avert the evil effects of dreams (68.3.2) and 17. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 4.1.21; 14.1.10; 20.7.3,8; 22.5.1; 23.13.1; 33.7.5; 41.4.3; 51.5.1; 64.9.7; 70掳.15.3,4; 71.17.9, 18.2; 72.2.2. 18. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 4.4.9; 6.1.11; 17.2.16; 20.6.8, 7.2; 33.6.12.

692 of prodigies (70掳.32.36). The pranava, the vyahrtis and the Gayatri mantra were believed to be great purifiers and were used for muttering (japa) and also while offering oblations! Great importance was attached to temples and to the trees 20 21 19 growing around them. Caityas and caitya-vrksas are often mentioned in the Parisistas, especially in connection with the portents. The following eight auspicious objects are said to be created by Brhaspati: 1) Brahmanas, 2) cows, 3) fire, 4) earth, 5) mustard, 6) clarified butter, 7) sami, and 8) rice and barley (4.1.22-23). The following ten objects are said to be specially fit for being used for gifts (mahadanas): 1) gold, 2) sesame, 3) cow, 4) female slave, 5) house, 6) land, 7) chariot, 8) daughter, 9) elephant and 10) learning (14.1.8). It will be noticed that cows played an important role among the beliefs of the people. Just the touch of the cow is said to remove the effects of evil dreams (68.2.61-62). 22 The importance of silence (mauna) seems to have been fully recognised 23: Silence was prescribed at the time of 19. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 26.5.8; 30.3.1; 31.1.5, 3.1; 34.1.4,7; 38.2.6; 41.2. 6, 4.5; 42.1.9; 46.7.3; 67.8.2. 20. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 1.32.4; 64.8.4; 70 b.21.1; 70掳.3.2; 71.16.3. 21. 22. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 58 b.4.3; 64.8.5; 70掳.7.10,15; 70掳.32.19,24; 71.1.4, 10.1,3,11.3, 16.3; 72.3.9 See under 'The Gosanti' in the section "Ritual and Religious Observances" above (pp. 513-4). 23. In this connection, reference may be made to Renou "La valeur du silence dans le culte vedique", Journal of the American Oriental Society LXIX, pp. 11-17.

693 bath, while offering oblations and while taking meals (42.2. 7). A king was expected to take meals silently in the company of the Brahmanas (4.2.15). While meditating upon the Sun in the Hiranyagarbha-Vidhi, a king was to observe silence (13.2. 2). It is but natural that restrictions were laid down on food and other things for a person observing a vow. The Purohita was expected to live on Bilva, fruits, milk, or clarified butter for seven days prior to the commencement of the Pusyabhiseka (5.3.3). The Brahmanas were to fast for a day before commencing the Laghu-laksahoma; they were to fast even while performing it (30.1.6, 2.1). The Brahman priest was expected to fast for three days prior to the commencement of the Kotihoma; he was to live on wild fruits, roots or milk while performing it; and the other priests were to live on food fit for sacrifice (havisya) (31.5.5, 7.1,2). Similarly, the performer of the Brahmakurca-Vidhi was expected to live for four days on food containing no salt and was to fast on the day of the performance of that ceremony (38.1.3, 3.3). The celebrant of the Pasupata-Vrata was to fast on the fullmoon-day and the new-moon-day (40.6.1). The performers of the Yama-Vrata, Mitra-Vrata and Mrgara-Vrata were expected to eat food not containing milk and salt, and were not to consume sami-dhanya (46.1.9-10). The belief of the people in Destiny or Providence is reflected at one place where it is said that Fate always prevails; a man's effort is just a hetu. Between Fate and

694 endeavour, Fate alone is stronger. 24 Following are the sins mentioned in the Parisistas: abortion (2.6.3), fraud in weights and measures, selling a daughter or a cow, spitting into water, crossing over a pestle, keeping illicit contact with a Sudra woman' 26 25 or with the preceptor's wife, drinking wine (9.3.4-6), eating impure things and the food belonging to a Candala (2.6.3), selling Vedic lore, performing a homa out of time and without mantras, indulging in sexual intercourse by day (38.3.4-5), and cutting, piercing, eating or dallying at the time of twilight (41.2.3). It was considered improper for the younger brother to marry before the elder brother was married (23.12.3-5). Acceptance of gifts was supposed to be a sinful act (38.3.4) which diminishes religious merit (41.3.11) and the sin was to be CI. 24. Cf. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 2.1.2-3: 27 devam prabhavate baitham hetumatram tu paurusam | daivena tu suguptena to vasumdharam || daivat purusakaracca daivameva visisyate | tasmadevam visesena pujayettu mahipatih || 25. Prostitution is not mentioned among the sins. There is one reference to courtezan (rupajiva 1.45.7). 26. 27. Cf. Manu Smrti 4.218, 223. Caturvarga Cintamani of Hemadri (Vratakhanda, Vol. II, part 1, p.715) quotes from the Devi Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana and Skanda Purana passages mentioning the prayascitta of five Candrayana vows to be performed by a person who accepts a tila-dhenu.

695 washed off, according to some, by abandoning all such wealth (2.6.4). It has been categorically stated that one should never accept gifts from a king who is arrogant, cruel, haughty, 28 without faith, and who does not abide by the Sastras (2.6.2). to The sinners were supposed to go after death hell - the place of Yama. There was on the way, a river named Vaitarani which they had to cross. In the hell there were supposed to be crows having iron-beaks and there were also fierce dogs (no longer two as in the Rgveda X.14.10-12). There were deserts in the hell wherein the sinners had to suffer. The place was frightful on account of trees having leaves sharp like swords (9.4.1-3). After suffering in the hell, the sinners were supposed to be born in low species such as dogs, pigs, jackals, cocks and serpents 29 (41.3.4). The greatest desire of man is to lead a rich, enjoyable and prosperous life here and to be happy in the life 30 hereafter.3 Various rites as well as sacrifices are performed 26. Cf. Kane, Hist. of Dharmasastra IV, p.549. 29. Brhatsarvanukramani 6.1 (beginning) states that a person, who studies and teaches the mantras in the proper way, goes to Brahmaloka after death and thereafter he is born in the family of excellent Brahmanas to enjoy great incomparable pleasure. But he, who learns or teaches the mantras by fraud, goes to the hell full of pitchy darkness and having spent there as many years as there are letters in the mantras (studied by him), he returns to this life as an owl and then, after death, having resided in the hell, he is born here as a person blind at birth (janmandha). 30. Cf. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 10.1.21; 13.4.56; 20.7.11; 30.4.5; 31.10.3.

696 and vows are observed with a view to attaining both these ends. It is stated (23.14.4) that if a person performs the rites laid down in the Vedas with a particular intention, .31 that intention will be fulfilled;" and if he performs them without any desire, he attains liberation. Whatever action is done by a desireless person is said to lead to emancipation which is the highest bliss. It is a condition where there is no fear of grief, disease, death, old age, hunger or thirst, 32 and where the person attains immortality (22.10.5). The embodied soul is supposed to be in a state of bondage, and hence the earnest desire of every man is to become freed from the bondage of the body (1.49.3) so as to escape for ever from this cycle of life and death. Becoming one with brahman is evidently the highest philosophical ideal (22.10.5). But more frequent than the desire for attaining such identity with the Highest Reality is the desire for attaining heaven, though the attainment of heaven is generally regarded as being subservient to the spiritual emancipation. A meritorious person is said first to enjoy in the company of god Brahma and thereafter to reach Satyaloka from which there is no return (13.5.6). The Tadagadi-Vidhi is prescribed for those 33 who wish to recide entenally in the heaven' (39.1.12). 31. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 26.3.5 states that a person, desirous of liberation only, should offer fire-sticks ten fingers in length and besmered with clarified butter. 32. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 13.5.3 states that one can attain amrtatva by giving away gold. 33. Cf. Atharvaveda-Parisistas 40.5.3, 6.14.

697 34 In the ideology of the Atharvaveda-Parisistas , the heaven appears to consist of different regions like Suryaloka (11.2.4; 12.1.10; 14.1.16: 30.4.3 Adityaloka), Somaloka (30.4.3), Visnuloka (30.4.3), Brahmaloka (30.4.3; 31.10.3; 43.6.5; 49.5.12) and Rudraloka (31.10.4; 40.5.5). Jyotirloka is said to be beyond 35 the seven lokas (15.1.9). A person who reaches heaven is supposed to stay there till his religious merit is exhausted. 36 Thereafter he has to return to this life (42.1.13). It appears that the four types of mukti, namely, salokya, samipya, sarupya and sayujya, were known. The Pasupata-Vrata mentions Pasupati-sayujya (40.6.14). It is said that a person, who is meritorious, is taken to the highest abode at the end of his life-period, in an aerial car (30.4.5) which is decked with jewels and pearls 37 (9.4.4).