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The dependent origination (paticcasamuppada) is as a foundation of all the Buddha's teachings. This important doctrine can be seen through the following words of the Buddha, "Whoever sees conditioned genesis sees dhamma, whoever sees dhamma, sees conditioned genesis: Yo paticcasamuppadam passati so dhammam passati, yo dhammam passati so paticcasamuppaadam passati. 117 The term 'paticcasamuppada' is derived from two component parts 'paticca' means 'dependent' and 'samuppada' means 'origination.' 'Dependent' indicates the combination of the conditions, since states in the process of occurring exist in dependence on the combining of their conditions: it shows that they are not eternal. 'Origination' indicates the arising of the states, since these occur when their conditions combine, and it shows how to prevent annihilation. Thus Dependent Origination: since any given states are produced without interrupting the cause-fruit continuity of any given combination of conditions, the whole expression Dependent Origination represents the middle way (majjhima patipada). How is Dependent Origination taught? Herein, firstly it is the states beginning with 'ignorance' that should be understood as 'Law of Dependent Origination or Causal Law'. 118 Secondly it is the states beginning with 'ageing-and-death' that should be understood as 'Dependently-originated States or Things as having causally happened'.119 The states that are conditions should be understood as the Dependent Origination. The states generated by such and such 117 M. I, 236. 118 S. II, 2. 119 Op. cit., 26.

73 120 conditions are Dependently-originated States. It is to be known by the Blessed One's word. For it is precisely those states which are conditions, that with the synonyms beginning with 'reality,' have been called 'dependent origination' by the Blessed One when teaching the Dependent Origination in the sutta on the Teaching of the Dependent Origination. And Dependently-originated States that is 'conditioned by rebirth is decay-and- death - whether, there be an arising of Tathagatas, or whether there be no such arising, this nature of things just stands, this causal status, this causal orderliness, the relatedness of this or that. Concerning that the Tathagata is fully enlightened, that He fully understands. Fully enlightened, fully understanding He declares it, sets it forth, manifests, explains; makes it plain, saying "behold"! Conditioned by rebirth is decay - and death, conditioned by becoming is rebirth ... conditioned by ignorance are activities. Whether, there be an arising of Tathagatas, or whether there be no such arising, this nature of things just stands. ..."121 Consequently, it should be understood that Dependent Origination has the characteristic of being the conditions for the states beginning with ageing-and-death. Its function is to continue the process of suffering. It is manifested as the wrong path. Some scholars have often thought that, the doctrine of Dependent Origination has one fixed formula that is the twelve and starting from "ignorance" (avijja.) Some others have usually confused and ignored because of its diversified and complicated meaning. In reality, the doctrine of Dependent Origination presented in Suttapitaka with the different forms, not only twelve links, but also eight, ten, five, 120 121 Trans. Bhikkhu Nanmoli, The Path of Purification, Taipei: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2007, p. 592. S. II, 25. 122 The Path of Purification, ibid., p. 593.

74 twenty-three, etc., in dependence on the places where the Buddha felt necessary to present it, ahara with four kinds is one of different forms of this vital doctrine taught by the Buddha. Dependent origination that is taught with different ways by Lord Buddha can be recapitulated in fourfold, namely, (i) from the beginning up to the end, 124 (ii) from the middle, up to the end, 125 (iii) from the end up to the beginning 126 and (iv) from the middle down to the beginning. Here ahara that is in the fourth way is described in another form of dependent origination from the middle down to the beginning found thus: 123 124 127 "There are these four sustenances, brethren, for the maintenance of beings that have come to birth or for the forwarding of them that seek to become. Which are the four? Material food, coarse or fine, secondly, contact, thirdly, volition, fourthly, consciousness. These four are the sustenances for the maintenance of beings that have come to birth, or for the forwarding of those that seek to become. And of these four, brethren, what is the base, whence is the uprising? How are they produced? What causes them? Craving is their base, from craving is their uprising, craving produces them, causes them to be. What is the base, whence is the uprising of craving? What produced it? What causes it to be? Feeling is its base, its uprising, produces it, causes it to be. And contact is the base, the uprising, the producer, the cause of feeling, sense of contact, name-and-shape of sense, consciousness of name-and-shape, activities of consciousness, and ignorance of activities. Such verily, brethren, is this: 'conditioned by ignorance are activities, conditioned by activities is consciousness,' and Dependent Origination in Eight Elements taught in D. II, 56-57; Ten Elements in D. II, 32-33; Five Elements in S. II, 72; Twenty-Three Elements in S. II, 31-32. M. I, 261. 125 Ibid., 266. 126 Op. cit. 127 The Path of Purification, p. 600.

75 so on. Such is the uprising of the entire mass of ill. But from the utter fading away and ceasing of ignorance the ceasing of activities, from the ceasing of these the ceasing of consciousness, and so on. Such is the craving of this entirre mass of ill."128 According to Lord Buddha's teachings on ahara, the origin of the four nutriments is traced to craving (tanha,) and the conditioned arising is pursued further back, in terms of the dependent origination. But while, in the usual formula of the dependent origination, it is clinging (or grasping, upadana) that is conditioned by craving, here, in this sutta, nutriment (ahara) takes the place of clinging. So it also does in the Maha Tanhasankhaya Sutta (M. I, sutta No. 38,) while the Cula-Sihanada Sutta (M. I, sutta No. 11) has here the fourfold division of clinging, with, otherwise, the same wording as the present sutta. Both Pali words, ahara (nutriment) and upadana (clinging) have originally the same meaning of "taking up," "seizing," and both are also used to signify the fuel of a fire or a lamp (see SN 22.88.) 129 Several of the Samyutta texts on conditioned origination bring in another kind of causal relation, that of four kinds of 'food (ahara.) Only the first kind of food is food in the literal sense of what creatures eat. The second is 'contact' (phassa 'stimulus'.) The third is volition of the mind. The fourth is consciousness. Through these beings persist and are enabled to be produced (to be reborn). The source, the origination, of these four foods, however, is desire. From this, we are led through the sequence desire, experience and the rest down to ignorance. Another text 130 elucidates the four foods. Ordinary food is connected with the passion of the five senses. Contact (stimulus) is 128 129 S. II, 11 (Tran. by Mrs. C.A.F. Rhys Davids, The Book of The Kindred Sayings, part II, PTS, pp. 8-9.) The four divisions of grasping: the grasping of sense-pleasure, the grasping of view, the grasping of rule and custom, and the grasping of the theory of self. 130 S. II, 99.

76 connected with experience. Volition of the mind is volition, wishing, aspiring for something. (e.g. to be out of extreme danger and pain). It is connected with desire. Consciousness-food is described as experience through the sentient body, the later being specially connected with consciousness. When ordinary food is fully understood passion is understood. When contact is fully understood experience is fully understood. When volition of mind is fully understood the three desires (presumably for pleasure, existence or non-existence) are fully understood. When consciousness-food is fully understood the sentient body is fully understood. 131 Further, if there is passion, delight, craving as to solid food, then consciousness finds a resting place and grows there. Therigatha there is descent of name-and-shape (into the womb), and as a result there is growth of activities. Where there is growth of activities (samskara) there in the future is renewed becoming and rebirth. Where in the future is renewed becoming and rebirth (punarbhava), then there is in the future decay-and-death, grief, affliction, despair and all kinds of unhappiness. It is exactly the same if there are passion, pleasure, desire for the other three kinds: Consciousness will find a resting place and grows the same results. From this, the chain of Dependent and conditioned origin can be made in the following sequence and their opposites: Due to lust for four foods, consciousness is firmly placed. Due to consciousness, name-and-shape arises. Due to name-and-shape, formations arise. Due to formations, becoming and rebirth are renewed. Due to becoming and rebirth are renewed, decay and death arise. Due to decay and death, grief, affliction, despair arises. 131 Ibid., 101.

77 Because lust for four foods is ceased, consciousness is ceased. Because consciousness is ceased, name-and-shape is ceased. Because name-and-shape is ceased, formations are ceased. Because formations are ceased, becoming and rebirth are ceased. Because becoming and rebirth are ceased, decay and death are ceased. Because decay and death is ceased, grief, despair are ceased. The conditioned Nature of food 132 is described in Moliyaphagguna Sutta thus: "Who eats? The consciousness-food? Asked one of the monks when the Buddha had spoken of 'beings' persisting and being reborn through the four foods. 'Not a sound (proper) question,' replied the Master, 'I do not say 'eats' ... If you were to ask "of what is the consciousness-food that would be a sound question. The consciousness-food is the condition for the future production of rebirth." In the same way the Buddha explains that it is not sound to ask who touches, who desires, and so on. One may ask, however, through what condition there is touch (contact, stimulus) or desire. Although in the stereotyped formula of Dependent Origination, ignorance is shown as the first condition which is not traced any further, 'for the origin of ignorance is not discernible' (purima koti na pannayati avijjaya,) and it cannot be said, "There was a time when ignorance was not" (ito pubbe avijja nahosi.) Still it was definitely stated by the Buddha that ignorance, too, is conditioned and sustained by the five hindrances. Therigatha follows a chain of Dependent and Conditioned origins, not unlike the paticcasamuppada, but links are here shown as sustenances or nutriments (ahara) in the following sequence: ignorance is not apparent, so that one may say: Ignorance (avijja,) five hindrances (panca nivaranani,) three wrong ways of practice (tini duccaritani,) lack of mindfulness and self-composure (indriyasamvara,) lack of thorough work 132 Ibid., 12-13.

78 of mind (asatasampajanna), distracted attention (ayonisomanasikara,) lack of trust (assaddha), not listening to true dhamma (asaddhammassavana,) not following after the very man (asappurisasamseva.) Such is the nutriment of ignorance and thus its fulfillment (evam etissa avijjaya aharo hoti, evanca paripuri.) 133 But their opposites lead to deliverance through knowledge (vijjavimutti) in the following sequence of sustenances: following a worthy man (sappurisasamseva,) listening to true dhamma (saddhammassavana,) confidence (saddha,) careful attention (yonisomanasikara), mindfulness with self-control (sati-sampajanna,) restraint of the senses (indriyasamvara,) the three right ways of conduct (tini sucaritani,) the four methods of mindfulness (cattaro satipatthana) the seven factors of wisdom (satta bijjhanga,) deliverance through knowledge. The above citations showed the five hindrances (panca nivaranani) are food for ignorance and three evil ways of conduct (tini duccaritani) are food for the five hindrances; the seven limbs of wisdom (satta bojjhanga) are food for release by knowledge "vijjavimuttiya" and the four arsing of mindfulness (cattaro satipatthana) are food for the seven limbs of wisdom. Again, ahara bears the meaning of paccaya taught by Lord Buddha who spoke of food for the five hindrances and for the seven limbs of wisdom. Here, due to the unsystematic attention (ayonisomanasikarabahulikara) to the alluring features of things (subhanimitta,) these things are called food for the arising of sensual lust (kamacchanda.) The repulsive feature of things (patighanimitta) are called food for the arising of malevolence (byapada.) Regret, dressiness, languor, surfeit after meals, torpidity of mind (arati tandi, vijambhita, bhattasammada, cetaso linatta), are food for the arising of 133 A. V, 113. 134 Ibid., 115.

79 sloth and torpor (thinamiddha). Non-tranquillity of mind (cetaso avupasama) is food for the arising of excitement and flurry (uddhaccakukkucca.) Things, which are based on doubt and wavering, are food for the growth of perplexity (vicikiccha.) 135 In other words, alluring features of things ... and unsystematic attention or wrong thought are two conditions (paccay) of foods for the arising and growth of the five hindrances. However, if there is a systematic attention, the repulsive feature of things, a heart released by goodwill, the element of putting forth effort, tranquility of mind, things good and things bad will not be foods for the five hindrances. As regards the seven elements of wisdom (bijjhanga) which lead to enlightenment, it is said that the things which are based on these various limbs, when systematically attended to (vonisomanasikarabahulikara,) form also the nutriment of these seven elements of insight-wisdom, viz., things based on the limb of wisdom that is mindfulness. These things are called food for the arising of mindfulness. Things good and bad, things blameworthy and things not blameworthy, things mean and things exalted, things that are constituent parts of darkness and light are foods for the arising of the limb of wisdom which is Norm-investigation. The element of putting forth effort, the element of exertion, the element of striving are food for the arising of energy. Things based on the limb of wisdom that is zest are foods for the arising of zest. Tranquility of body and there is tranquility of mind are food for the arising of tranquility. Sights, calm, and bewilder not are food for the arising of concentration. Things based on the limb of wisdom that is equanimity are food for the arising of the limb of wisdom, is equanimity. In other words, systematic attention is food for the limbs of wisdom. 136 Similarly, "energy and exertion are food for getting wealth. Finery and adornment are food for beauty. Seasonable action is food for health. 135 S. V, 102. 136 Ibid. 103-104.

80 A lovely friendship is food for virtue. Restraint of the sense-faculties is food for the Brahma-life. Not quarrelling is food for friendship. Repetition is food for much knowledge. Lending an ear and asking questions are foods for wisdom. Study and examination are foods for teachings. Right faring is food for the heaven worlds."137 Ahara is not only a material phenomenon, but as an active process it is a condition (ahara-paccaya) of support of two kinds: the relation of edible food to the body and the relation of immaterial supports to coexisting states of mind and body. It is this nutritive support in the psychological field, which forms the basis of the doctrine of karma and the teachings connected therewith. Food (ahara) is frequently synonymous with causal condition, e.g, "from the arising of food comes the arising of body; from the ceasing of food is the ceasing of body; and the way leading to the ceasing of the body is the Noble Eightfold Path: ahara-samudaya rupa-samudayo, aharanirodha rupanirodho; ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo rupanirodhagamini. Here, food of the body has been substituted for the usual conflict of existence (dukkha), its origin (samudaya,) its cessation (nirodha) and the path thereto (magga.) And gain, consciousness and its cause (pancabija-jatani vinnanam saharam datthabbam) are to be considered as the five sorts of seed, which require both the soil of the four stations of consciousness (vinnanatthiti) and the water of lust (nandiraga) in order to grow and increase. Similarly, merit is called the food, i.e., the cause of happiness (sukhassahara)." ,,138 139 140 The above suttas have pointed out ahara is paccaya - condition. For the four foods, edible food (kabalinkarahara) is the cause of inseparable matter (avinibbhogarupa) - the four great essentials: earth, water, fire, 137 A.V, 136, Itthadhammasutta No.3 (73). 138 S. III, 59. 139 Ibid., 54. 140 A. III, 51. Know SPPU

81 141 and air elements and four derivatives - colour, smell, taste, and nutritive essence - are known as avinibbhogarupa because they are always bound together and are present in all material objects from the simplest to the most complex. The other types of material phenomena may be present or not, and are thus regarded as separable. And contact (phassahara) is the base, the uprising, the producer, the cause of feeling (phassahara paccaya vedana); Volition (manosancetanahara) is the condition of rebirth consciousness (patisandhivinnana); and consciousness-food (vinnanahara) is the condition of the body and mind (vinnanahara paccaya namarupam.) In reality, the doctrine of dependent origination is difficult to realize. It is hard because it repels all worldly desires, annuls any notion of 'I am', advocates all things are conditioned, while thought and deed of a human is opposite. By this opposite a human being always gets grief, affliction, and despair. Hence, Lord Buddha has made use of various ways to present it (truth of life) and ahara in meaning of condition or cause, is one of the ways used lively by the Enlightened One while spreading the dependent origination. It can be said that through ahara, man can understand easily about law of dependent origination, the truth of suffering and origin of suffering and the way leading to the cessation of suffering. This will be done next.