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The establishment of religious monuments in ancient Kashmir had long history. Literary tradition is replete with the references pertaining to the establishment of such monuments since second-third century B.C. However, most of them have not survived and multiple causes are attributed to define this phenomenon ranging from nature鈥檚 to man-made onslaughts. Apart from literary references, the archaeological explorations and excavations have unearthed many monuments from the various places/sites of Buddhism, Saivism, Vaisnavism and their undercurrents, which can help us to reconstruct fresh or to substantiate the existing religious history in the literary sources.

The earliest monument in this regard is reported from the Buddhist site of Sadarhadvana (which most of the scholars identify with present day Harwan in Srinagar)^[1] which is historically associated to Kushana rule (1^st -2^ndcentury A.D.).The excavations have revealed Buddhist monument in the form of an apsidal Stupa (shrine) in a diaper-pebble style, diaper-pebble styled rectangular Chaitya (prayer hall) and a triple based Stupa. These structures, according to S.L Shali, express resemblance with the structures of then Taxila (ancient Gandhara region), hence representing cultural connectivity between the two regions.^[2] Similarly, the site of Puranadhishthana (old capital), corresponds present day Pandrethan in Srinagar district, have also revealed religious monuments in the form of two Buddhist Stupas, courtyard of Vihara (monastery) and a Siva temple.^[3]

The site of Huviskapura generally associated to Kushana rule, corresponds present day Ushkur in Baramulla district, have revealed ruins of Stupa with a surrounding wall built by Karkota king Lalitaditya (724/5-760/1 A.D.), representing Gandhara influence. This monument was built on the ruins of Kushana Stupa, as S.L Shali opines that the plinth of the same is that of Kushanas and rest of the structure of Lalitaditya鈥檚 time.^[4] We learnt from Rajatarangini that the king Lalitaditya built at Huviskapura, a shrine of Visnu called Muktasvamin. He also built a large Vihara with Stupa. Another site which has revealed the religious monuments of Lalitaditya鈥檚 times is Parihaspora, which corresponds to present day Paraspor or Divar in Baramulla district. This historic site was capital of Lalitaditya and the king adorned it with opulent and ornate monuments of the diverse faiths, though personally he followed Vaisnavism. The excavations at the site have revealed Buddhist Stupa, Chaitya, and Vihara. Besides these structures, on the opposite of the same karewa are Visnu temples, two of which are identified as Parihakesava and Muktakesava of Rajatarangini. This is in fact the reason that S.L Shali in this context refers it as the site of brotherhood, love and affection, thus reflecting religious accommodation.^[5] Similarly, the site of Sodharatirtha or Nandisetra which corresponds to present day Naranag in Ganderbal district has revealed a complex of Siva temples of Lalitaditya鈥檚 time. These temples are categorised into two groups-lower and the upper. The former group consists of twelve temples in which the colossal one is that of Siva Jyesthesvara and the latter group consists of six temples with colossal one that of Siva Bhutesvara.^[6] Despite being the follower of Visnu, he built temple complex of Siva, reflecting King鈥檚 belief in religious plurality and accommodation.

Present pictures of Naranag temples (field work collection)

Another monument, the sun temple, Martanda, located in present day Mattan in Anantnag district, pertains to the same king is also a reflector of religious accommodation. This temple besides carrying the iconographic manifestation of sun god(Surya) also carries the iconographic manifestation of three-headed Visnu on the wall of inner chamber of its gateway. Similarly, on its middle chamber it contains the iconography of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna. It also carries the image of earth goddess (Prithvi) and Aruna (charioteer of Surya).^[7]

Present pictures of Martanda temple (filed work collection).

Similarly, Kalhana in the fifth Taranga (chapter) of his Rajatarangini informs about the establishment of two temples, Visnu called Avantiswamin and Siva called Avantisvara, at the site of Avantipura, which corresponds to present day Avantipora in Pulwama district, historically associated to Utpala king Avantivarman (855-883 A.D.).Both the temples in present times are well preserved at the same place.^[8] Another Utpala ruler, Samkaravarman (883-902 A.D.), is said to have established three Siva temples in his capital Samkarapura, which corresponds to present day Pattan in Baramulla district. The explorations have revealed two out of the three temples mentioned by Kalhana and both are still standing tall. The first Siva temple built by the king on his own name called Sankaragauresvara and another built by king鈥檚 queen on her own name called Sugandhesa.^[9] Both the temples are just at the distance of less than a kilometre from each other.

Present picture of Sankaragauresvara temple (field work collection)

Present picture of Sugandhesa temple (field work collection)

Like that of the Karkotas, the religious establishments of Utpala鈥檚 also reflect religious accommodation. Similarly, the village of Bamzav, just a mile away from Mattan in Anantnag district, has revealed two Visnu temples built by Bhima Shahi, maternal grandfather of Didda.^[10] Similarly, among the Lohara monuments we have at the place of mammal, which corresponds to present day Pahalgam in Anantnag district, Siva temple. This temple has been identified with Rajatarangini鈥檚 Mammesvara, built by king Jayasimha (1128-1155 A.D.).^[11]

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, trans. M.A Stein (New Delhi: Living Thoughts, 2010), Taranga (chapter) 1, verse 173鈥� sfootnote., S.L Shali, Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company, 1993),131., Shonaleeka Kaul, The Making of Early Kashmir: Landscape and Identity in Rajatarangini(New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2018),144.

[2]:

Shali, Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, 131-32.

[3]:

Ram Chandra Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir (Srinagar: Gulshan Publishers, 2002), 115-16.

[4]:

Shali, Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, 124.

[5]:

Shali, Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, 155-56.

[6]:

Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, 166-170.

[7]:

Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, 131-35.

[8]:

Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, 118-24.

[9]:

R.C Agarwal, Kashmir and its monumental glory (New Delhi: Aryan Book international, 2002), 153-54.

[10]:

Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir,136-37.

[11]:

Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, 141.