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Perception, generally called 'pratyaksa', is admitted by all philosophical schools to be the most primary and fundamental source of knowledge. It is not only the basic source of our knowledge but also is the basis of the other methods of knowledge. Inference as a method of knowledge depends on perception as inference is based on the prior cognition of the universal and necessary relation between the reason (heto) and the consequence (sadhya). The knowledge of the relation between two things is not possible without having the cognition of the things. And it can be obtained by perception. Thus, a thing is, first, known by perception as necessarily related to another thing, afterwards, the latter is inferred from the recognition of the former. Similarly, Upamana also depends on perception of the points of similarity or dissimilarity between two objects. So also the sabda is dependent on perception in es much as the first step in it is the visual perception of written or spoken words, and such words must come from 1. Vatsyayans, Nyaya Bhasya, 1.1.3.

116 person who has a direct knowledge of the truths communicated by him. So we see that perceptual knowledge is the ultimate ground of all other knowledge by inference, comparison and testimony. J.S. Mill recognized this truth when he said that "the truths known by intuition are the original premises from which all others are inferred" Secondly, perception is the final test of all We may know the truth by other means also. knowledge. 1 But the knowledge from inference, comparison and testimony requires confirmation but the perceptual knowledge needs not any further confirmation. Vatsyayana says, "When a man seeks the knowledge of a certain thing, if he is told of it by a trustworthy person and has the verbal cognition of the thing, there is still a desire in his mind to retify his information by mans of inference through particular indicative features and even after he has been able to get the inferential knowledge of the thing, he is still desirous of actually seeing the thing with his eyes, but when he has once perceived the thing directly, his desires are at rest and he does not seek for any other kind of knowledge." 2 In Western philosophy, the validity of perception 1. J.S.Mill, A System of Logic, Page 3. 2. Vatsyayena, Nyaya Bhasya, 1.1.3.

117 is unquestionable and self-evident. J..M 11 remarks: "Whatever is known to us by consciousness (intuition), is known beyond possibility of question. What one sees or feels, whether bodily or mentally, one cannot but be sure 1 that one sees or fears. 4.T. Mervin also says that "Perception is the ultimate crucial test, and as such, it does not presuppose its own possibility. It simply is; and the man who questions it assumes it in order to do the 2 questioning." Similarly, Russell tells us repeatedly that the truths of perception are self-evident truths, for which we require no test at all. 3 The Naiyayikas, however, do not admit that the validity of perception as such is self-evident and unquestionable. *Perception is the final test of all other knowledge', it does not mean that the truth of perception is self-evident or that it cannot but be true. From the standpoint of common-sense realism they grant that, under normal conditions, what is directly perceived is not doubted and so need not be further proved or tested. When however any doubt arises with regard to the walidity of perception, we must examine and verify it as 1. J.S.Mill, A System of Logic, Page 4. 2. W.T.Marvin, The New Realism, Pages 66.67. 3. Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, Page 72.

118 much as any other knowledge.