Principle of Shakti in Kashmir Shaivism (Study)
by Nirmala V. | 2016 | 65,229 words
This page relates 鈥楰ula: The Earliest Shakti-oriented School of Kashmir Shaivism鈥� of the thesis dealing with the evolution and role of Shakti鈥攖he feminine principle鈥攚ithin the religious and philosophical framework of Kashmir Shaivism. Tantrism represents an ancient Indian spiritual system with Shakti traditionally holding a prominent role. This study examines four major sub-streams: Kula, Krama, Spanda, and Pratyabhijn膩.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
Part 1 - Kula: The Earliest 艢补办迟颈-oriented School of Kashmir 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘
Studies on Tantric tradition frequently mention Kula as the earliest 艢补办迟颈-centred stream. Modern scholars-from Teun Gaudriaan to James Mallinson-usually consider it as an independent system. But they have been trying to present it with least attention to the chronological details about the contents of Kula, which makes it hard to decide whether it is 艢补办迟颈-centred or 艢颈惫补-centred.[1] Refuting such ambiguity logically on the basis of the earliest extant sources, the present study views Kula as a system with a high significance of 艢补办迟颈. It demands a glance into the early phase of Kula. There are many conceptions about the origin of Kula including a mythical account that ascribes the Kula tradition in Kali age to Macchanda or 惭补迟蝉测别苍诲谤补苍腻迟丑补 who flourished not much later than 5th century CE.[2] But the earliest available literary sources on Kula date back to 7th century CE.
Katherine Ann Harper in this regard observes that:
鈥淢ost of the 艢腻办迟补 Tantras, including some of the oldest, declare themselves be appropriate to the Kula tradition.鈥�[3]
This clearly hints at the importance and hoariness of Kula as a 艢补办迟颈-centred system. As the meaning of the term Kula suggests, the system represents a family or a clan[4] of practitioners-probably females-who used to perform obscurantist rituals to attain supernatural powers[5]. These rituals were usually performed in the cremation grounds, and hence it was also reckoned as a branch of 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘, derived from the 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补 or 鈥�cremation ground 补蝉肠别迟颈肠颈蝉尘.鈥�[6]
Some scholars hold the view that Kula tradition should be considered as a re-emergence of the early South Asian cult of mother goddesses and a derivative of 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补 school as well.[7] The present study wishes to follow this approach in a slightly distinct way i.e, by postulating a possible developmental history of the system. The term re-emergence here presupposes a state, in which the revitalisation and preservation of primitive tradition are necessary. It is well known that the most archaic cultic tradition was feminine-centred. 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补 is the ascetic system originated as a branch of the earliest stream of 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘 in India i.e., 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补.
The nature and content of 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补 tradition clearly indicate its inclination towards the Br膩hma峁噄c elements. The creation of a 艢颈惫补-centered ascetic system may be treated as the foremost attempt by Br膩hma峁噄sm to 鈥榠nternalize鈥� Tantra. But 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补 and its sub sects were not much accomplished in their duty assigned by Br膩hma峁噄sm. It was also coined by means of aggressive approaches of Br膩hma峁噄c orthodoxy even towards its 鈥榓ffectionate stream鈥� called 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补 (which is thought to be as the parent school of 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补s).[8]
While examining the postulation of 鈥榩an Indian religious substratum鈥�,[9] Geoffrey Samuel points out that,
The religious substratum requires some kind of pre-existing goddess cult-a 艢腻办迟补 or at least a proto-艢腻办迟补 tradition which was gradually incorporated into 艢aivite and Buddhist practice.[10]
Subsequent discussion focuses on the representation of 艢补办迟颈 in this particular school which will be beneficial to the assertion that the Kula stream of Kashmir 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘 was the re-emergence of a pre-existing goddess cult. The 艢补办迟颈-centredness of Kula tradition is examined here concentrating mainly on its metaphysical aspects.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
Navjivan Rastogi addresses this problem and says that as the mode of practice of Kula ritualism is found extended to both 艢补颈惫补蝉 and 艢腻办迟补s in the same form, the development of the stream of Kula should be agreeable to the 艢腻尘产丑补惫补 and 艢腻办迟补 views. Ka艣mir 艢aiv 厂补尘蝉办峁泃颈 men Kul aur Kram Mat, D.K Printworld, Delhi, 2011, p.18. Acceptance of Kula as the earliest 艢补颈惫补 stream-in spite of accommodating the 艢补颈惫补 traditions like 笔腻艣耻辫补迟补 into the domain of Tantrism-may be noted as a part of a 鈥�politics鈥�. For details, see Chapter. 5 of this study, p.157.
[2]:
See, K.C. Pandey, Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study, Chowkhamba Amarabharati, Varanasi, 2006, p.546. cf. Pandey鈥檚 contradictory observation in Ibid., p.489; which suggests that no other writer is there prior to 厂辞尘腻苍补苍诲补 who wrote on Kula. More authentic references for the early existence of Kula system are available in the early scriptures like Dev墨pa帽ca艣atik膩 (顿别惫墨辫补帽肠腻艣补迟颈办腻), which have been referred to by 厂辞尘腻苍补苍诲补 himself. The existence of Kula tradition before 9th century CE could also be found out from the suggestion provided by Mallinson-through examining the reference to Matsyendra of Nath tradition as the exponent of later development of Kula system called 笔补艣肠颈尘腻尘苍腻测补-and the evidences for the transformation of Tantrism into the doctrinal literatures of 艢谤补尘补峁嘺 tradition in 4th century CE. For more details, see N. N. Bhattacharya (Ed.), Tantric Buddhism, p.27; R. S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society, Orient Longman, Hyderabad, 2001, p.246. On the other hand he says that it stands automatically discarded in the light of the references found in 顿别惫墨辫补帽肠腻艣补迟颈办腻 As Somananda鈥檚 date is calculated (as 9th century CE,) his reference about 顿别惫墨辫补帽肠腻艣补迟颈办腻 is the solid evidence for the pre-existence of Krama and Kula Tantrism. One thing is clear that before the commencement of contemporary studies of 厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补 (厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补) by Judit Torzsok (厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补: The Doctrine of Magic Female Spirits, D.Phil Thesis, Merton College, Oxford, 1999; and 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 (叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补) Shaman Hatley (The 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补 and Early 艢补颈惫补 Cult of 驰辞驳颈苍墨蝉, Ph.D Thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 2007.) respectively, there were no specific historically or chronologically packed data about the early existence of 艢补办迟颈-centred Kula system.
[3]:
Katherine Ann Harper, The Roots of Tantra, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2002, p.18.
[4]:
Shaman Hatley, Op.cit., p.33, refers to an early 艢腻办迟补 Tantra, named 驰辞驳颈苍墨濒补办峁峁嘺 for explaining the tendency to classify even the goddesses according to clans. The women practitioners are being amalgamated with the main stream 尘腻迟峁泂 also seen in the early texts. For instance, see, 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补, IV. 888鈥�899. These may be considered as the evidences for the appropriation techniques of Tantrism as discussed in the Chapter 5 of this study, p.157 ff.
[5]:
Recent researches in the Sofia University with the aim of deconstruction of patriarchy, mainly concentrates on the rituals of dianic witch craft devoted to the divine feminine nearly similar to Kula renderings and it has been studied as having the reproduction of primitive structure and undercurrents. For details, see. http//www.sofia.org. For new research applications of Goddess studies, see Lolana Patricia, 鈥�Literature of the Sacred Feminine: Great Mother Archetypes and the Re-emergence of the Goddess in Western Traditions鈥� VDM Verlag, Nov. 2009, p.74ff.
[6]:
In fact, 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补s might be viewed as directly related to the performance characteristics of early cult of mother goddess by considering their usage of skull cremation grounds as the major reasons. Refer to, David. B. Gray, 鈥淪kull Imagery and Skull Magic in the 驰辞驳颈苍墨 Tantra鈥�, Pacific World, Vol. 3, No. 8, pp. 21-39. Earliest texts such as 叠谤补丑尘补测腻尘补濒补迟补苍迟谤补, 厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补 etc. contain the references about the cremation ground practices in a broad manner, For instance see 厂颈诲诲丑补测辞驳别艣惫补谤墨尘补迟补 ch.13.
[7]:
Raffaele Torella (Ed. and Tr.), The 莫艣 varapratyabhij 帽膩 k 膩 rik 膩, p.1.
[8]:
The similarities and continuities in the characteristics of ritualistic ancient beliefs indicate the transformation, of an exclusive belief in the creative power -the supreme mother, through the ages. For an account of the theory of early origin of mother goddess cult, see N.N. Bhattacharya, Op.cit., passim. Moreover this argument stands against the proclamation by Alexis Sanderson who says, 鈥淲e find that feminine rises stage by stage from subordination to complete autonomy鈥�. See 鈥�Saivism and Tantric Traditions鈥�, S. Sutherland et.al (Eds.), The World鈥檚 Religions, Routledge, London, 1988, p.668; The 尝腻办耻濒补蝉: New Evidence of a System Intermediate Between Pa帽 c膩rthikap膩艣upatism and 膧gamic 艢补颈惫颈蝉尘, 2015, p.7. See also H. V. Dehjia, The 驰辞驳颈苍墨 Cult and Temples: A Tantric Tradition, National Museum, New Delhi, 1986, for the affirmation of posterior position of 艢腻办迟补 tradition thus; 鈥淭he 艢腻办迟补 traditions share all basic elements with 艢补颈惫补 traditions. Moreover, the chosen tantric texts show that the goddesses gradually replace the male-gods structures, and thus the goddess-oriented traditions are posterior鈥�. Cf. Geoffrey Samuel, Op.cit, p.254. Go through the observations that the imagery of cremation ground is the central role of fierce goddess and the 碍腻辫腻濒颈办补 or 艢腻办迟补 materials are more in contrast with the Anuttarayoga. Shaman Hatley also opines that, Sapta尘腻迟峁泂 鈥渁ppear to represent a transformation of the mothers into Saiva, tantric goddesses.鈥� Op.cit., p.137.
[9]:
Alexis Sanderson, David Sayfort Ruegg and Francesco Sferra had a series of discussion about the root of the origin of South Asian Tantric systems. The prominent conclusion produced from it was about a common religious substratum which acts as the foundation of later developments such as 艢aivite and Buddhist Tantrisms. (For details, see, 鈥淪ome Considerations on the Relationship between Hindu and Buddhist Tantras鈥�, 2013, www.scribd.com.)
[10]:
Geoffrey Samuel, Op. cit., p.274.