On the use of Human remains in Tibetan ritual objects
by Ayesha Fuentes | 2020 | 86,093 words
The study examines the use of Tibetan ritual objects crafted from human remains highlighting objects such as skulls and bones and instruments such as the 鈥渞kang gling鈥� and the Damaru. This essay further it examines the formalization of Buddhist Tantra through charnel asceticism practices. Methodologies include conservation, iconographic analysis, c...
Appendix: Museum objects accessed for this research
| Institution | Date of exam | Number | Object type | Human? | Place or date of acquisition | Notes | Figure no. |
| Objects examined in UK collections | |||||||
| National Science Museum (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | 1987-716 pt3 | prayer beads (phreng ba, 尘腻濒腻) | yes | Bhaktapur, Nepal 1986 | 112 cranial discs, acquired with rkang gling (1987-716 pt 11) | 1.6 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A27550 | apron on polyester backing | no | n/a (鈥�Tibetan鈥�) | two rows of large, flat plaques; approximately 12 with standing two-armed figures in robes, also rdo rje, secondary plaques are foliage, bell-shaped bangles | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A161208 | crown, carved plaques on silk backing | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | five plaques with buddha figure over a skeletal face; see also 4.3.28, accumulation of sindur; goes with A161210 | 4.3.30 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A161209 | apron on belt | yes, mixed | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | six large plaques in top register attached to woven cloth belt; 5-6 yogin墨 with smaller figures/ messengers in between; secondary plaques are makara along the bottom, foliage patterns; 谤耻诲谤腻办峁 seeds; light accumulation of sindur | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A161210 | triangular apron on silk backing | yes, mixed | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | eleven plaques of varied size in top register; no fewer than five different carving campaigns evident; one multi-limbed figure off center, standing male figures and two seated buddhas(?) over skeletal faces; supplementary plaques are rdo rje, 8 auspicious signs, 谤耻诲谤腻办峁 seeds; see A161208, same silk, was on perm display (w/o crown) in the years 1996-2005; see also 4.3.29 | 4.3.31 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A161211 | ornaments (fragments) | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | assorted small and large plaques, beads; three yogin墨, 8 auspicious signs | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 9 Feb 17 | A639104 | apron (partial) | no (with a few possible exceptions) | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | missing large plaques on top, with one piece ivory and industrial produced bells at bottom, a few tapered and lac-colored beads; 8 auspicious signs, royal emblems | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 16 Feb 17 | A4737 | 岣�amaru | uncertain | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | damaged, revealing thin (2-3mm) cross section; previously treated for pests with methyl Br, no cranial sutures | 4.5.15 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 16 Feb 17 | A5408/1 and 2 | pair of rkang gling | not femur, uncertain | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | with silver and cuprous alloy chasing; previously on display twice; motifs are flames, skeletal faces, three heads as triple jewel | 4.4.10 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 16 Feb 17 | A161269 | prayer beads (尘腻濒腻) | likely, not cranial | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | 106 beads plus large turquoise and leather thong (108); described in record as (lan ch鈥檈n grod pa) or bones? from stomach of elephant (glang chen grod pa), which has vegetarian diet | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 16 Feb 17 | A635129 | prayer wheel | uncertain | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | like A4737 has no evidence of cranial sutures, texture is like bone | |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | A20948 A | bandha | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | set of four with hair, pennants, grime and thongs; for use in performance of 鈥�chams | 4.2.28-4.2.31 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | A20948 B | bandha | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | set of four with hair, pennants, grime and thongs; for use in performance of 鈥�chams | 4.2.28-4.2.31 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | A20948 C | bandha | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | set of four with hair, pennants, grime and thongs; for use in performance of 鈥�chams | 4.2.28-4.2.31 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | A20948 D | bandha | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | set of four with hair, pennants, grime and thongs; for use in performance of 鈥�chams | 4.2.28-4.2.31 |
| Wellcome (NSM) | 28 Feb 17 | A106716 | 岣峚尘补谤耻 | uncertain | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | no cranial sutures, bone texture; see Dorje and Ellingson (1979) | |
| Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) | 30 Mar 17 | IM.13-1922 | skull 岣峚尘补谤耻 (thod rnga) with carvings | yes | Tibetan, 19th century, donated 1922 by O. Marriage, Esq | large with carved skeletal faces and two letters or syllables in 搁补帽箩补苍腻 script (illegible) | 4.5.22 |
| V&A | 30 Mar 17 | IM.21-1928 | skull with stand | yes | Tibetan, acquired in 1928 | copper stand with repousse three heads and round lotus petal base, see BM As1979,16.24a | 4.2.14 |
| V&A | 30 Mar 17 | IM.250-1916 | trumpet (stag gling?) | no (tiger?) | previously owned by Capt. A.O. Greagh, former agent at Gyantse | wrapped in (goat?) leather (not hide) with tassel; small with no condyle knobs; see stag gling, PRM 1954.6.89 (fig. 4.4.18) | 4.4.19 |
| V&A | 30 Mar 17 | IS.1:1-12.2007 | complete set of bone ornaments | no | loaned by Capt. Fletcher in 1932, acquired in 2007 | very consistent rendering; five large yogin墨 in top register, framed by two more figures; secondary plaques are 8 auspicious signs, guardians at bottom; five skull crown; see image of Demo Rinpoche in similar (4.3.18) and 鈥榗hams dancer from dKar mdze in same (4.3.15) | 4.3.22 |
| V&A | 30 Mar 17 | IS.30-1965 | prayer wheel | mixed animal with human possible | Tibetan, before 1965 | see PRM 1991.17.25; see also NML 53.87.216 for similar wood and carving/mark-making | |
| National Museums Liverpool (NML) | 6 Jul 17 | 53.87.216 | 岣峚尘补谤耻 | no | collected by J.M. Ward in India/Burma in 1914-1916 | carved wooden double-sided hand drum with bone handle and snake skin drumheads; carved motif is skeletal faces and two letters/syllables in 搁补帽箩补苍腻, see V&A IM.13-1922 | |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 54.85.125 | rkang gling | yes | collected by H.G. Beasley before 1938 | red and green leather or hide with copper mouthpiece | |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 56.85.127 and 128 | bone trumpet | uncertain | collected by H.G. Beasley before 1938 | bones might be human but condyle bell end has been replaced with copper fitting; shaft wrapped in copper wire | |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 56.26.305 | thod rnga | yes | collected in Darjeeling before 1907 | green skins, pennants with conch, red belt | 4.5.19 |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 56.27.281 | thod rnga | yes | collected by J.C. White in 1904 at Drepung | green skins, red belt; in two pieces separated at center | 4.5.11 |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 56.27.811 | rkang gling | yes | collected in Darjeeling before 1873 | painted strips of textile as covering of bell end and handle | 4.4.4 |
| NML | 6 Jul 17 | 1973.81 | bone ornaments | yes, mixed | purchased from Christie鈥檚? | assembly of beads with central plaque showing two-armed Samvara in yab yum (18th c?), mounted on fabric for resale | 4.3.20 and 4.3.21 |
| British Museum (BM) | 4 Aug 17 | 1880.2476 | thod rnga | yes | n/a (鈥淭ibetan鈥�) | in two halves with snake skin (python) drum heads | 4.5.12 and 4.5.13 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | As1979,16.24 a-c | skull with stand and lid | yes | donated by L. McMorran (collector) 1979, Tibetan? | three heads on rim, lid (?), tall, round base with lotus petals in copper, see V&A IM.21-1928; accessioned with group of Tibetan objects | 4.2.13 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1933,0315.10 4 a-h | set of eight rings | uncertain | acquired by W.L Stevenson Loat archaeologist, from Tibetan area | undetermined function or composition | |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 2003,0929.1 | apron, two limb ornaments and neck ornament | uncertain | donated after bequeathed by A.A. Goulden who was likely with Gurkhas (Nepal?) | six large plaques on top register with three protectors, one yogin墨 and two skeletal figures; secondary plaques are foliage, astral bodies and 8 auspicious signs, makara and bells along the bottom; high quality carving on mixed substrate with no polish, has sPyan ras gzigs at center in second register | 4.3.14 (detail) |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1934,0314.1 | thod rnga | yes | donated by Sister E. Archer, 1934 | rough make with two different colored skulls, treated for mold and frass | 4.5.8 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1930,0306.1 | apron with silk backing cloth and glass beads | yes, mixed | donated by Sir Robert Greg (collector) 1930 | top register has six dakini, multiple carving campaigns (up to six); secondary plaques are foliage, astral bodies and protectors, small buddha figures; tapered red with lac beads, glass beads, makara and bells at bottom; see Braunholtz 1934, was on display at Wellcome with A5408 1 and 2; | 4.3.25 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1913,0718.1 | rkang gling | yes | purchased from 鈥淢iss Shervinton鈥� in 1913, Tibet/Nepal | goat (?) hide wrapped around bell with contrasting color rdo rje appliqu茅, evidence where tassel was previously attached | 4.4.5 and 4.4.6 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1883,1027.1 | inscribed skull | yes | acquired with numismatic collection from Edward Gilbertson (collector) | inscribed with mantras in red (cinnabar?) paint, will be on display for Tantra show at BM (2020) | 4.4.20-4.4.22 |
| BM | 4 Aug 17 | 1894,0310.40 | prayer beads (尘腻濒腻) | no | acquired by A.W. Franks, former curator at BM, collector for V&A, etc. | shell with beads, possibly human | |
| Pitt Rivers Museum (PRM) | 11 Sep 17 | 1890.34.2 | skull | yes | acquired before 1890 | no ornamentation, uneven rim; see Balfour 1897 | |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1916.34.17 | prayer beads (phreng ba, 尘腻濒腻) | no | donated by E.B Taylor, anthropologist in 1916 | two 尘腻濒腻 connected, wood and one with discs of shell or bone (not human, 1-2 mm thickness) | |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1938.34.47 | thod rnga | yes | purchased at Stevens Auction Rooms in 1927, bequeathed by Henry Balfour (PRM curator) in 1939 | red cloth belt, plain colored hides | 4.5.9 |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1938.34.48 | thod rnga | yes | bequeathed by Balfour in 1939 | red cloth belt, greenish brown hides, possible rattle? | 4.5.27 |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1941.8.199 | thod rnga | yes | acquired by A.J. Evans, archaeologist | red cloth belt and handle, plain colored hides; likely Lepcha | 4.5.28 |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1954.6.88 | apron | yes, mixed | acquired in the field in 1905? by A.C. Rigo de Righi; donated by Beasley | on display on the second floor of museum, five deity plaques with two skeletons at either end: 痴补箩谤补惫腻谤腻丑墨, two-armed deities in yab yum, male, multi-limbed deity alone, two (?) yogin墨; secondary plaques are 8 auspicious signs, foliage; makara and bells along the bottom | |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1954.6.89 | bone trumpet (stag gling?) | no | donated by Beasley, collected before 1925 | tiger femur? with copper repouss茅 bell in shape of makara and mouthpiece, see V&A 250.1916 | 4.4.18 |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1964.12.4 | apron | no | purchased in Bombay by P. Wengraf (London-based dealer) before 1964 | translucent, flat bones with brown surface sewn onto green velvet circle; 9 large standing deities in top register, 8 auspicious signs below; triangular composition | |
| PRM | 11 Sep 17 | 1991.17.25 | prayer wheel | no | collected in field by C.M.L.R Allen, donated 1991 | carved animal bone wheel with wooden handle and dharani inside | |
| Objects documented or examined in previous research (Fuentes 2014) | |||||||
| Brooklyn Museum | 27 Dec 12 | 23.289.27201 | apron | yes | Acquired with on museum expedition by F. Pratt and F. Babbott, 1923 | multiple carving campaigns, central yab-yum with six yoginis, below central top plaque is an image of historical Buddha, see BM 1930,0306.1; secondary plaques include 8 auspicious signs, gandharva, fpliage; makara and bells at bottom | 4.3.8 and 4.3.9 |
| Rubin Museum of Art | 27 Dec 12 | n/a | apron | yes | incomplete documentation | central plaque is yab yum, framed by two 岣嵞乲颈苍墨; no online record | |
| Pacific Asia Museum | 15 Jan 13 | 1984.28.1 | apron on belt | yes, mixed | donated in 1984 by B. Coburn | 7 large plaques in top register with figures of yogin墨, protectors; at least 5 different carving campaigns; grid-like configuration with 谤耻诲谤腻办峁 seeds, attached to red cloth belt | |
| Pacific Asia Museum | 15 Jan 13 | n/a | apron on painted backing cloth | yes, mixed | incomplete documentation | five deities on first register, multi-limbed central figure with two yogin墨; protectors at far ends; secondary plaques are 8 auspicious signs, makara at bottom; attached to dark-colored cloth with face of chos skyong painted on | 4.3.26 |
| Pacific Asia Museum | 15 Jan 13 | 2002.8.1 | chest ornament | uncertain, mixed | gift of C.L. Ahmanson, 2002 | central chest ornament is femur plaque with yogin墨, not wheel (see fig. 1.1 [V&A IM.293.1916]) | |
| Fowler Museum at UCLA | 8 Feb 13 | X69.300 A-J | ornament ensemble | yes | Originally owned by Henry Wellcome, likely from Nepal | plaques are missing on apron, five skull crown and other ornaments made from cranial pieces, accumulations of sindur | 4.1.4; 4.3.32 and 4.3.33 |
| Santa Barbara Museum of Art | 11 May 13 | 1954.15.2 | apron on leather belt | yes | gifted by Mrs. Wilbur L. Cummings in 1954; Wilbur L. Cummings probably acquired during or after a photo expedition in Himalayas for MFA, Boston during 1937-38 (see Life Magazine 12 Jun 39) | multiple carving campaigns, five yogin墨 across the top, multi-colored tassels; plaque with buddha in bhumispar艣a 尘耻诲谤腻 (see BM 1930,0306.1 and Brooklyn Museum ex), bells and makara along the bottom; secondary plaques mostly foliage | |